PHOTOGRAPHY: Svaneti & Ushguli. Photo & Text on September 13, 2007 by Paata Vardanashvili

Photo & Text on September 13, 2007 by Paata Vardanashvili

Svanetia or Svaneti is a historic province in Georgia, in the northwestern part of the country. It is inhabited by the Svans, an ethnic subgroup of the Georgians.

Geography

Surrounded by 3,000-5,000-meter peaks, Svanetia is the highest inhabited area in Europe. Four of the 10 highest peaks of the Caucasus are located in the region. The highest mountain in Georgia, Mount Shkhara at 5,201 meters (17,059 feet), is located in the province. Other prominent peaks include Tetnuldi (4,974m./16,319ft.), Shota Rustaveli (4,960m./16,273ft.), Mt. Ushba (4,710m./15,453ft.), and Ailama (4,525m./14,842ft.).Situated on the southern slopes of the central Greater Caucasus, Svanetia extends over the upper valleys of the Rioni, Enguri and Tskhenistskali. Geographically and historically, the province has been divided into two parts – Upper Svanetia (Zemo Svaneti; the present day Mestia Raioni) and Lower Svanetia (Kvemo Svaneti; the present day Lentekhi Raioni) – centering on the valleys of the upper reaches of the two rivers Enguri and Cxenis-c’q’ali, respectively. They are distributed between the present-day regions of Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti and Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti respectively. Historical Svanetia also included the Kodori Gorge in the adjoining rebel province of Abkhazia, and part of the adjacent river valleys of Kuban and Baksan of Russia.

Landscape

The landscape of Svanetia is dominated by mountains that are separated by deep gorges. Most of the region which lies below 1,800 meters (5,904ft.) above sea level is covered by mixed and coniferous forests. The forest zone is made up of tree species such as spruce, fir, beech, oak, and hornbeam. Other species that are less common but may still be found in some areas include chestnut, birch, maple, pine and box. The zone which extends from 1,800 meters to roughly about 3,000 meters (5,904-9,840ft.) above sea level consists of alpine meadows and grasslands. Eternal snows and glaciers take over in areas that are over 3,000 meters above sea level. The region is notable for its glaciers and picturesque summits. Svanetia's signature peak is probably Mt. Ushba which towers over the Inguri Gorge and can be seen from many parts of the region.

Climate

The climate of Svanetia is humid and is influenced by the air masses coming in from the Black Sea throughout the year. Average temperatures and precipitation vary considerably with elevation. Annual precipitation ranges between 1000 and 3200mm (39 and 126 inches). The highest amount of precipitation falls on the Greater Caucasus Mountains. The region is characterized by very heavy snowfall in the winter and avalanches are a frequent occurrence. Snow cover may reach 5 meters (16.4 feet) in some areas. In general, the lowest regions of Svanetia (800-1200 meters/2624-3936 feet above sea level) are characterized by long, warm summers and relatively cold and snowy winters. Middle altitudes (1200-1800 meters above sea level) experience relatively warm summers and cold winters. Areas above 2000 meters above sea level lie within a zone that experiences short, cool summers (less than 3 months) and long and cold winters. Large parts of Svanetia lie above 3000 meters (9840 feet) above sea level, a zone which does not have a real summer. Due to Svanetia's close proximity to the Black Sea, the region is spared from the extremely cold winter temperatures that are characteristic of high mountains.

History

The Svans are usually identified with the Soanes mentioned by Greek geographer Strabo, who placed them more or less in the area still occupied by the modern-day Svans. The province had been a dependency of Colchis, and of its successor kingdom of Lazica (Egrisi) until AD 552, when the Svans took advantage of the Lazic War, repudiated this connexion and went over to the Persians. The Byzantines wanted the region, for if they secured its passes, they could prevent Persian raids on the border areas of Lazica. With the end of the war (562), Svanetia again became part of Lazica. Then, the province joined the Kingdom of Abkhazia to form a unified monarchy which was incorporated into the Kingdom of Georgia in the early 11th century. Svanetia became a duchy (saeristavo) within it, governed by an duke (eristavi). The province’s Orthodox culture flourished particularly during the Georgian “golden age” under Queen Tamar (r. 1184-1213), who was respected almost as goddess by the Svanetians. The legend has it that the duchy was annually visited by Tamar. The Svans had been known as fierce warriors for centuries. Their inflatable war banner was named Lemi (Lion) because of its shape.The marauding Mongols never reached Svanetia and, for a time, the region became a cultural safe house. Following the final disintegration of the Kingdom of Georgia in the 1460s, fighting broke out for controlling the province. Part of Upper Svanetia formed an independent principality, while Lower Svanetia was gradually subdued by the Mingrelian princes. Facing serious internal conflict, Prince Tsioq’ Dadeshkeliani of Svanetia signed a treaty of protectorate with the Russian Empire on November 26, 1833. Difficult to access, the region retained significant autonomy until 1857, when Russia took advantage of the dynastic feud in Svanetia and effectively abolished the principality’s autonomy. In 1875, the Russians toughened their rule by imposing additional taxes. Protests ensued, and Russia deployed troops against the province. Despite having suffered heavy losses, the Russian army units eventually crushed the rebels burning their stronghold Khalde to the ground in 1876.Part of the Russian governorate of Kutais, Svanetia was divided into two raions (districts) – Mestia (former Sethi) and Lentekhi – under the Soviet rule. The unsuccessful anti-Soviet Svanetian Uprising took place in the region in 1921.In 1987, avalanches destroyed several homes and killed seventy, mostly school children. Collapse of the Soviet Union, and subsequent Georgian Civil War created severe socioeconomic problems in the region. While the Svanetian population resisted the unpleasant conditions of the high mountain environment they lived in for centuries, the increasing economic difficulties of the last two decades and frequent natural disasters – floods and landslides as of April 2005 have brought about a strong tendency towards migration. The province became a safe haven for criminals threatening local residents and tourists. Large-scale anti-criminal operations carried out by the Georgian Special Forces as of March 2004 resulted in significant improvement of the situation.

Culture and tourism

Svanetia is known for their architectural treasures and picturesque landscapes. The Botany of Svanetia is legendary among travelers. The famous Svanetian towers erected mainly in the 9th-12th centuries, make the region’s villages more attractive. In the province are dozens of Georgian Orthodox churches and various fortified buildings. Architectural monuments of Upper Svanetia are included in a list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.Svan culture survives most wonderfully in its songs and dances. Svanetia boasts the most complex form of Georgian polyphonic singing, traditional to Georgian vocal music.

Ushguli or Ushkuli is a community of villages located at the head of the Enguri gorge in Upper Svaneti, Georgia. Ushguli comprises the villages Zhibiani (some 2100 m above sea level), Chvibiani (Chubiani), Chazhashi (or Chajashi) and Muqmeri (Merqmer).
The Ushguli villages contain buildings that are part of the UNESCO Heritage site of Upper Svaneti.Altitude claims for Ushguli villages vary from 2086 to 2200 metre and it is sometimes referred to as the highest village in Europe.It is located at the feet of Shkhara one of the higher Caucasian summits. About 70 families (about 200 people) live in the area and there is a small school. For 6 months of the year snow covers the whole are and often the road to Mestia is closed. Typical Svanetian protective towers are found throughout the village. The Ushguli Chapel located on a hilltop near the village dates back to the 12th century.

SCIENCE:

The rivers of the Black Sea
Technical report No 71
by Shalva Jaoshvili

This document presents the result of a study of the discharge of river water and river load into the Black Sea. The volume of river water and load is investigated by individual river, by region and in total over the whole sea. The data used here came from hydrometric observations, field studies and calculations.

This book is intended for Black Sea researchers - geographers, geologists, hydrologists and oceanologists.

Editors:
Professor I. Khomerki, Doctor of Technical Sciences
Professor G. Gigineishvili, Doctor of Geographical Sciences
Professor A. Kordzadze, Doctor of Physics and Mathematical Sciences

Contents

Introduction .....................................................................................................................3
1. River-estuary-sea: a unified natural system ......................................................... 5
2. Natural features of the black sea coastline ............................................................. 9
3. coastline and estuaries ............................................................................................ 16
4. Volume of river discharge into the Black Sea....................................................... 28
5. Freshwater balance of the Black Sea .................................................................... 36
6. River loads discharged into the Black Sea ........................................................... 38
Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 49
References .................................................................................................................... 51

Introduction
The Black Sea, or the Euxine Sea or Pontus Axeinus as it was known in antiquity, is one of the cradles of civilisation. The history of mankind is deeply rooted in its shores. It has always been a lodestone for travellers and researchers because of its strategic position and the richness of its natural resources. The Euxine Sea was well known to the peoples of the eastern Mediterranean littoral. The first records we have of the Pontus Axeinus date back to the 5th century BC. The voyage of Jason to Colchis is described with a fair degree of verisimilitude in the myth about the Argonauts, which began in the 13th–14th centuries BC, and there is a description of the Euxine Sea in Homer’s Odyssey. Herodotus, Strabo and Ptolemy have left us a host of meticulously collected information, and a detailed description of the shores and estuaries can be found in Polybius’ Histories (201–120 BC) (6, 109, 115).
Proper hydrographic study of the Black Sea was begun at the end of the 18th century. The first accurate charts of the entire sea were drawn up in 1825–36 by Captain Mangarani, and Black Sea navigational directions were published in 1851. Comprehensive studies of the Black Sea, its shores and waters, were begun in the second half of the 19th century (43,115).
The Black Sea is now one of the most studied of all the marine basins on our planet. This has engendered a requirement for more precise data from additional research such as the balance between water and river load, sediment formation and a wide range of other subjects. The situation has been made more complex in recent years by the ever-increasing level of pollution, with its links to the outflow of water and river load from the surrounding landmass.
Interest in the Black Sea stems not just from its strategic position and the biological richness of its waters. It is also of great economic significance internationally. The economic role of the Black Sea has increased over recent years since, after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, six Black Sea littoral countries (Bulgaria, Georgia, Russia, Rumania, Turkey, Ukraine) reasserted their interest in these waters. Of prime importance to the Black Sea economy is the transportation of cargo, locally and as part of the ancient Silk Route, and the
production and transportation of oil. The need to transport oil has driven the recent expansion of the existing ports and there are plans for new ports to be built.
There are many industrial and military sites located around the Black Sea. Moreover, the Black Sea was, in the recent past, an important resort and holiday destination - a fact which must not be lost sight of. While this role diminished throughout the 1990s, the Black Sea resorts and recreational areas have once again begun to attract tourists.
The international Black Sea Economic Cooperation Area (BSEC), comprising the six littoral States and Azerbaijan, Albania, Armenia, Greece and Moldova, was set up in 1992 to exert some control over these complex economic issues.
All these circumstances give support to the conclusion that a new approach to Black Sea issues is necessary, one which will entail meticulous study of the sea’s biology, all the more urgent now as human life has more and more negative impact on the already poor ecological condition of the sea.
This new raft of work will attempt to quantify the amount of river discharge — water and load — disgorging into the Black Sea. Much is expected from a study at this level. The aggregate amount of fresh water entering the sea is still known only approximately; precise information is long overdue. New data from hydrometric observations and research over recent years has enabled more precise figures to be calculated for the amount of river water entering the Black Sea; these calculations have included the effect of artificial control of the flow.
River load is the factor least studied, in the Black Sea as in other regions. There are other associated issues here, too, such as erosion of riverbanks, artificial beach formation, pollution of the sea etc. These issues are particularly topical now, when shoreline retreat, caused by a decreasing amount of bank-forming deposits, has become irreversible, and are played out against a background of observable increase in the ocean levels worldwide, with pollution in the Black Sea already reaching threatening level. Accurate quantitative assessments of river load reaching the sea are also necessary for any proper research into current sediment formation processes on the sea bottom.
It must also be remembered that the virtually locked water basin of the Black Sea is many ways similar to an ocean, especially in the relation between river load distribution and deposition. Given its more favourable conditions and the less extensive scope of work involved, the Black Sea can be regarded as a natural laboratory (110).
In recent years, with ‘new times’ entering the political situation, the spirit of new times has entered the Black Sea research arena, too, and investigations have become international in character. A Black Sea Regional Committee (BSRC) was set up in 1996 under Unesco’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, tasked with coordinating and intensifying scientific research on the Black Sea. One of its key projects (pilot project 2: Black Sea sediment fluxes) conducts research into flows of river load into the sea, and our document is part of this project.

Full text: The rivers of the Black Sea